The Significance of the Title to the Novel the Pearl

The essentialness of the title to the novel ‘The Pearl’. The epic ‘The Pearl’ by John Steinbeck is such a novel, that truly intrigue me as a peruser. What is truly suitable is simply the title which consolidate ‘the pearl’, the pith of the story. The pearl is extremely noteworthy to the title on the grounds that without ‘the pearl of the world’, the story just would not exist. The epic couldn't remain without anyone else if the pearl isn't found. We can likewise observe that any story would not be intriguing without conflicts.The pearl has made clashes among the characters in the novel. In this manner, it very well may be said that the pearl moves the story. The characters are nothing without the pearl. The pearl is the start and the finish of the novel. As perusers, we can see that the pearl shows up as something huge when Kino discovered it. The finding of the pearl is depicted distinctively in the story. Its shading and shape are appeared by the essayist graphically. The reaction from Kino who secured his clench hand triumphantly and his companions who come in drove show the significance of the pearl.We understood that the story spins around the pearl. This proceeds till the finish of the story. The vanishing of the pearl when it was tossed by Kino denotes the finish of the story. Along these lines, the pearl is a solitary element which is critical to the novel. The pearl is vital as the title as it separate among great and malicious and between poor people and the affluent. It turns into an inestimable ware that transforms the character into what their identity is. The individuals who wish to be shrewd utilize the pearl for detestable purposes though the great simply need it for their typical life.Thus the pearl is noteworthy to the two gatherings, and to the title of the novel. A tale vitality lies in the presence of ground-breaking characters and plot. Despite the fact that the pearl isn't a character, i ts inclusion in about all the significant happenings is an explanation that the vitality drives the story forward. The individuals who contact it become fixate on it and the individuals who haven’t are happy to effectively get it. Kino gets fixated on the pearl guarantees and the specialist is eager to forfeit his expert behavior to get the pearl.It appears that the vitality of the pearl is wild. This makes ‘The Pearl’ a wonderful story that intrigue perusers. A story needs an appropriate setting which suit the period. The pearl is an ideal instrument that suits a story that happens in La Paz, a significant pearl maker in American Continent. We can envision that if the pearl is supplanted with other thing, the novel would get dull and the story gets insignificant. It is a significant apparatus that require by numerous individuals in La Paz, including the locals and the well off immigrants.Kino himself said that the pearl is his spirit. The pearl that drives the e conomy of La Paz is additionally the one that drives the plot of ‘The Pearl’. The focuses above have demonstrated that the title of the novel ‘The Pearl’ which utilizes the pearl of the world as its principle fixing is appropriately picked. The title ‘The Pearl’ consummately suits the story plot. It additionally gives the correct fixing to clashes and an establishment for a ceaseless journeys for a decent life.

Health and Human Services essays

Wellbeing and Human Services expositions The Department of Health and Human Services is the United States government's central office for securing the wellbeing all things considered and offering basic human types of assistance, particularly for the individuals who are least ready to support themselves. The Department incorporates in excess of 300 projects, covering a wide range of exercises. A portion of these projects include: Clinical and sociology inquire about Forestalling episode of irresistible sickness, including vaccination administrations Guaranteeing food and medication security Medicare (health care coverage for older and handicapped Americans) and Budgetary help for low-salary families Improving maternal and newborn child wellbeing Head Start (pre-school training and administrations) Forestalling kid misuse and aggressive behavior at home Substance misuse treatment and avoidance Administrations for more seasoned Americans, including home-conveyed suppers Exhaustive wellbeing administrations conveyance for American Indians and Alaska Natives HHS is the biggest award making organization in the government, giving about 60,000 awards for every year. HHS' Medicare program is the country's biggest wellbeing guarantor, taking care of in excess of 900 million cases for every year. HHS likewise works intimately with state, neighborhood and inborn governments, and numerous HHS-supported administrations are given at the nearby level by state, district or innate offices, or through private division grantees. The Department's projects are managed by 11 HHS working divisions. Notwithstanding the administrations they convey, the HHS programs accommodate impartial treatment of recipients across the country, and they empower the assortment of national wellbeing and other information. The Secretary of HHS under President Clinton was Donna E. Shalala. She was conceived in Cleveland, Ohio, and taught at Western College. In the wake of graduating in 1962, she served two years I ... <!

Why This University Essay Sample Works

Why This University Essay Sample WorksWhen looking for writing samples, why this university essay samples? There are numerous reasons why people look for these examples. They can be found at a number of online university resources that are easy to use and they can be used by anyone. If you are looking for essays that need to be completed, a free sample from any online resource is a great way to get started.Writing is not something that is easy to do. Some people get this and then think that writing is something that takes practice and that it is not worth the effort. The truth is that writing is just as hard for some people as walking. It is just as important. Writing is so important that it has now become an industry that provides many jobs.Writing is a form of communication in which several different types of words are used to tell a person's opinion or thought on something. Students need to learn how to express their thoughts in a way that others will understand them. Since so man y people use computers to write, it makes sense that writing should be something that is done digitally as well. With the digital age, writing becomes easier and simpler and it is a great time management tool.If you are looking for essay samples, why this university writing samples? It is because it will give you a chance to express your ideas as well as make sure that you are using the right word choices. Using the proper grammar will make you appear better than if you are just using words that are not proper for the type of writing that you are doing.Essays provide students with a lot of things to learn. While you might think that this is just a place where students go to study, it can also be a great place to learn some business skills as well. When students write essays, they can learn about writing and they can also learn about marketing.The online writers do have the opportunity to learn some important skills. Some of the lessons include writing essays in general. You can also learn about researching things online and about writing a thesis statement and finally, you can learn about how to design the paper and all of these skills will come in handy when you are trying to get a job.Many of the students that are in this online writing course do go on to become writers themselves. As you can see, there are so many different benefits to being a student and working for someone else. It is a great way to get a resume together, learn business skills and a career for you and your family.If you are looking for writing samples, why this university writing samples? This online writing course allows you to write an essay about almost anything you are interested in. You will be able to make sure that you know what you are doing as well as show off your skills in writing so that you can land a great job in the future.

The Historical Measures Of Our Country - 1287 Words

Essential American Documents Learning about the historical measures of our country is very important for many reasons. One reason is because they helped our country become the great country it is today. Many documents, or speeches turned into documents, mark major events that helped develop our country. It is during the weaker moments when the strength of our leaders shine. Overlooking the past, there are many different documents spread out along the timeline. Some happened under pressure while others involved time and effort before the final masterpiece was finished. These great documents vary in a wide range but all had a large impact on this country. To begin, a very important speech, which was later turned into a document, took place quite early in our nation’s history. This speech is known as the Gettysburg Address given by the president at the time, Abraham Lincoln. He gave this speech to a mourning crowd after a large battle in the great Civil War in 1863. The speech ba sically marked the battlefield as an important place and he dedicated it to the men, on both sides, who gave their lives there. President Lincoln was very inclusive in his speech. For example, he said the word â€Å"we† exactly ten times and â€Å"here† eight times. Even though his country was in a war against itself, he encouraged each citizen to come together and appreciated the men who died in battle. This document had a large contribution to our countries upcoming. If it weren’t for Lincoln expressing thisShow MoreRelatedMarketing Development Of New Product Development1469 Words   |  6 Pages (LiHuang, 2012) HOW TO MEASURE NPD PERFORMANCE It is a complex concept to measure the product development performance. The most major of managers uses more than one measure to evaluate new product performance.ï ¼Ë†Salvador Villena, 2013ï ¼â€°As the PDMA Handbook of New Product Development (2007,2012) shows that to assess the product performance, it usually has multiple standards. Some of them listed belowï ¼Å¡ -Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement Quantitative measure usually gains a large data orRead MoreUnited States And The World s Biggest Economy By Ostensible And Genuine Gdp1256 Words   |  6 Pagescentral North America in the middle of Canada and Mexico. The United States is a created country and has the world s biggest economy by ostensible and genuine GDP. United States is among of the earth’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural countries, the result of huge scale immigration from numerous nations. The geology and atmosphere of the United States are likewise to a great degree diverse, and the country is home to a wide assortment of wildlife. The United States has a racially and ethnicallyRead MoreUnited States And The World s Biggest Economy By Ostensible And Genuine Gdp1278 Words   |  6 Pagescentral North America in the middle of Canada and Mexico. The United States is a created country and has the world s biggest economy by ostensible and genuine GDP. United States is among of the earth ’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural countries, the result of huge scale immigration from numerous nations. The geology and atmosphere of the United States are likewise to a great degree diverse, and the country is home to a wide assortment of wildlife. The United States has a racially and ethnicallyRead MoreThe Between Math And Sports1680 Words   |  7 Pagesresources listed near the bottom of this page. Try our Lessons on Decimals, then do the following: What is a batting average? How is a batting average calculated? Calculate the batting averages for the following players. PLAYER AT-BATS HITS BATTING AVERAGE Ken Griffey, Jr 600 173 Sammy Sosa 625 180 Tony Gwynn 411 139 Order the batting averages in tem 3 from least to greatest. Compute the batting averages for 25 players in the 2008 season. Find historical player stats for 20 baseball players from theRead MoreThe Dokdo Dispute Between South Korea and Japan754 Words   |  3 Pagessovereignty ever since 1910 (South). This island has three names, Dokdo, Takeshima, and Liancourt. Dokdo, a solitary island, is a Korean name for this island. Takeshima, a Bamboo Island, is what Japanese call it. Both Japan and South Korea uses historical facts to support their claims for the island (Profile). To what extent is the dispute between Korea and Japan an issue about resources versus history? South Korea claims that Liancourt Island was originally their territory ever since Kim IsabuRead MoreThe Need for Empowerment1652 Words   |  7 Pagesuneducated in relation to politics government, and the world around them. Civic participation is considered a fruitless measure in the minds many American citizens. When interviewed on the subject; many depict themselves as a minute part of a huge entity in which they have no control. Others expressed a lack of time and energy that it takes to be involved, or a dependence on the country as a whole - to make the right decisions. The understanding of democracy and its principals are concepts of an unknownRead More A Revolution of Values: The Promise of Multicultural Essay1058 Words   |  5 Pagespurpose because of the credibility instilled by the historical context of her writing and expert opinions and her appeals to pathos through the use of personal experience. In Hook’s writing she had one specific purpose. She wanted to help people understand the depth and complexities of racial injustice. She is also informing the reader that racism is something that not many people think too much about. She is stating that we tend to overlook most of our past and present issues of racism and segregationRead MoreThe Power Of An Illusion, California Newsreel And Its Co Director Larry Adelman1048 Words   |  5 PagesIn Race: The Power of an Illusion, California Newsreel and its co-director Larry Adelman crafted a documentary that is both accessible and sophisticated. Making use of state-of-the-art scientific, historical, and social-scientific accounts, the series was about the crew being on a detailed tour of a wide range of attitudes and beliefs about race. It exposes the many misconceptions and inadequacies of the common sense views into which we have all been deeply socialized. Most notably, the seriesRead MoreThe Sustainable Development Is Defined By The Brundtland Report Essay1271 Words   |  6 Pagesthe ability of future generation to meet their own needs. (World Commission on Environment and Development). The Gross National Product (GNP) measures the economic activities and production of every country. As the GNP of a country tends to rise so does its resource consumption. Industrialized nations consume more energy per capita than third world countries, as the energy is needed in every economical aspect: business, manufacturing, transportation, agriculture, and architecture. United States ofRead MoreEconomic Factors Affecting The Economic Activity Of The Uae998 Words   |  4 PagesNext we should discuss some of the similarities and contrasts between the two countries. the most important contrast between these countries that is related to the study objective, UAE statistical SMEs report, shows that the dominate SMEs sector is the trade sector (60%) such as retail sector, consumer goods trading or garments trading. the second sector is services (35%) such as contracting industry and tourist-focused services. the Sector that is ripe for development in the UAE, is manufacturing

Shipping American Jobs Overseas Essay - 1021 Words

Shipping American Jobs Overseas Did you know that â€Å"the nation has lost more than 2.5 million manufacturing jobs and more than 850,000 professional service and information sector jobs, due to overseas shipping since 2001? (Aflcio)† It is clear to me that some big business companies don’t value the protection of employees very highly. By some big business, ill single one out and state that Goldman Sachs has shipped approximately 500,000 American jobs overseas in the past few years. That’s about half of the total net job loss during these past years (Aflcio). This shows that companies are reluctant to stay in American and scared of the current economic situation. It upsets me to see American jobs being shipped overseas at such a rough time†¦show more content†¦should receive those tax cuts. Financials have revealed that oversea companies receive government procurement contracts worth billions of dollars along with their tax breaks. Not only are these b usinesses getting cuts on their finances they get financial aid to help them. This money comes from American taxpayers, and it goes towards a business that does not provide any help towards the country that is assisting it (Aflcio). The jobs that they do offer are located halfway around the world; this does no good for the hard-working American. â€Å"These taxpayer-financed benefits usually come with very few strings attached; allowing companies to skim additional profits by performing publicly funded work overseas (Aflcio).† I believe that, in this day and age, companies are always trying to take advantage of the government and find loop hole. Laws concerning the distribution of government procurement should be reformed to not encourage the shipping of jobs overseas, but to promote the growth of a business in America with the assistance of government procurements paid for by the taxpayers who live in the country. Forlini 3 To solve these problems I believe that we need to remove other incentives to ship jobs overseas by taking away the benefits of doing so. One way to remove incentive of shipping jobs would be to implement a national health care system that would benefit the business, so health careShow MoreRelatedMade In America1076 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"Made in America† The trend towards outsourcing overseas and the slowly decreasing of American manufacturing has made it very difficult to find American-made goods, but not impossible. There are a few small businesses that are still dedicated to manufacturing goods in the United States, but in today’s society, they are hard to come by. Buying goods manufacturing in the USA is something that us consumers, business owners and even the government can do to support these businesses that manufactureRead MoreThe Globalization of the American Furniture Industry Essay1679 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican furniture manufacturers have struggled with making cost-competitive products over the past decade. Several have closed U.S. facilities and built plants overseas or hired companies to make the goods in foreign countries and ship them here. Many factors have influenced the decision to move production over seas including, labor costs, price of materials, freight costs, time in transit, overall time to ma ke a product and get it to market, and the amount of training needed for employees. â€Å"ARead MoreNifta Case Study747 Words   |  3 Pagesopening opportunities for American businesses to expand their global reach by encouraging neighbouring countries to shop American products. Nonpartisan congressional research in 2015 concluded that NAFTA did not cause mass job loss (CNN, 2017). The trade deficit might not have been due to low Canadian and Mexican e-commerce sales but rather U.S companies relocating their manufacturing to Mexico and driven by low-wage competition. A huge factor that slowed down exports of American goods is the slump ofRead MoreWide-Ranging Trends That Impact the Oil and Gas Industry1584 Words   |  6 Pagesdetermining the aspects of job security inspiration and job contentment of employees-in the sample-from big and small companies in the industry. It shall be the effects of inclinations as seen by the subjects that will compute the self-determining vari able. The trends are gauged on two precise factors: household, and lawful and overseas. Workers of both small and big oil companies deem the local feature to be uniformly important, but worked of bigger firms consider the lawful and overseas feature to be moreRead MoreEssay about BUSI 613 Journal Review 1 Week 2 31191 Words   |  5 Pagescustomer satisfaction. Ferreiara Prokopets also listed competitive and viable options available to onshore or near shore choices. They go on to further explain, with examples, the relocating (or consideration) of thousands of manufacturing firms from overseas locations to locations within the United States while tying in the fact that in addition to saving money, the ability to oversee equipment production and satisfy customers is also enhanced. Supply Chain Management Theory The single most importantRead MoreSamuel Colt1010 Words   |  5 Pagesforty-seven. His death shocked many and his brother in law Richard Jarvis assumed the factory’s responsibilities. Richard would run the company for years and would contribute in keeping the Colt’s Manufacturing Company legacy alive. In the outbreak of the American Civil War the future of America was being decided in a battle between the North and South. During this exact time Hartford played an important role in manufacturing weapons for the North. As a matter of fact Colt’s company signed a government contractRead MoreOutsourcing and Off Shoring is Unethical Essay635 Words   |  3 Pagesglobal competition are seeing their jobs also now moved overseas shedding light certain jobs, and certain categories are affected. This caused and raised much fear to vulnerable targeted individuals. The lost of the auto and high paying manufacture jobs moving over seas has generated phobia of hollowing-out of the Unites State economy. Let the truth be told â€Å"the lost of those positions, strong economics growths and innovation created far more –and better- jobs to replace them† (Raynor, 2003)Read MoreMis : Information and Services Does the Web Site Provide for Individuals, Small Businesses and Large Businesses1474 Words   |  6 Pagessite is a great sales multiplier for any product or service, business to consumer (B2C) or business to business (B2B). UPS has used the Web site to allow individuals, small businesses and large businesses to gain access to many features that make shipping with UPS faster and more convenient. Since UPS offers a single source to manage global transportation and freight, giving the capacity to extend ones business reach, the organisation has used the web site to show how its experienced staffs has designedRead MoreHow is outsourcing affecting American Citizens, its not only taking jobs away from us Americans1400 Words   |  6 Pagesis outsourcing affecting American Citizens, its not only taking jobs away from us Americans but is also hurting our US economy. Outsourcing is when a company such as Apple sends jobs overseas to a country such as China and has factory workers there assemble the product for a much lower price. Yes this lowers the price of products but we have to take into account how many jobs this it taking from American citizens. Outsourcing jobs does lower the price of products but jobs should stay here in theRead MoreJapanese Automakers in the U.S. Economy Essay1098 Words   |  5 Pagesand Nissan. Or domestic like Ford, GM and Chrysler, also known as Americas Big Three. Should we feel guilty walking into a local Honda dealership to buy a vehicle that is more reliable and efficient than its American competitor? Are we obligated to buy an American car simply to help support the economy? Do Japanese automakers make a negative impact on the automotive industry? No. In fact, Japanese automobiles and the many markets they support stimulate the economy in many

Development politics-political science Free Essays

string(124) " way for the explanation of development policy in terms of a discretionary, type of economic management at the state level\." The development of economic thought on proper public policy has followed (if not led) political tides in developing countries. In the expedition for paradigm dominance in economics and sub disciplines such as development economics, neo-classicism appears to have won out. The market leaning thrust of the development â€Å"counter revolt† is now reflected in the conditionality underlying international policy restructuring, that is, the escalating pressure exerted on developing countries to lessen the scope of government intervention, craft more open policies, and the distended use of conditional development assistance as a means of enforcing conformity. We will write a custom essay sample on Development politics-political science or any similar topic only for you Order Now This must be interpreted from the viewpoint of a more invasive worldview that has perceived excessive government contribution as becoming more obtrusive in more developed and developing countries alike. Mill defined clearly the policy reform of classical economic liberalism. Thus it is helpful to look at the justified government interventions listed in his Principles. He begins his chapter ‘Of the Grounds and Limits of the Laissez-faire or Non-interference Principle’ by distinctive types of intervention. The first he calls authoritative intrusion, by which he means legal prohibitions on private actions. Mill argues on moral grounds that such prohibitions must be limited to actions that affect the interests of others. Although even here the obligation of making out a case always deceit on the defenders of legal prohibitions. Scarcely several degree of utility, short of absolute necessity, will rationalize a prohibitory regulation, unless it can also be made to suggest itself to the general principles. The second form of intervention he calls government agency, which exists ‘when a government, instead of issuing a command and enforcing it by penalties, [gives] advice and promulgates information . . . or side by side with their [private agents] arrangements [creates] an agency of its own for like purpose’. Thus the government can provide various private and public goods, but without prohibiting competing private supply. The examples Mill gives are banking, education, public works, and medicine. (Mill, 1909) The majority of the government interventions Mill permits belong to this second category. But he warns against their costs: they have great fiscal consequences; they boost the power of the government; all additional function undertaken by government is a fresh job imposed upon a body already charged with duties. So that most things are ill done; much not done at all,’ and the consequences of government agency are expected to be counterproductive. In a passage that is prophetic about the structure of numerous public enterprises in developing countries, he writes: The inferiority of government agency, for example, in any of the common operations of industry or commerce, is proved by the fact, that it is hardly ever able to maintain itself in equal competition with individual agency, where the individuals possess the requisite degree of industrial enterprise, and can command the necessary assemblage of means. All the facilities which a government enjoys of access to information; all the means which it possesses of remunerating, and therefore of commanding the best available talent in the market–are not an equivalent for the one great disadvantage of an inferior interest in the result. (Mill, 1909) On these grounds he concludes: ‘few will dispute the more than sufficiency of these reasons, to throw, in every instance, the burden of making out a strong case, not on those who resist, but on those who recommend, government interference. Laissez-faire, in short, should be the general practice: every departure from it, unless required by some great good, is a certain evil’. (Mill, 1909) But Mill also gives a bridge to the ideas that were later to weaken economic liberalism. The most significant of these was the collective ideal of equality, which was later used to develop a powerful cure to the liberal tradition through Marxism and was executed as state socialism by the Bolsheviks. Thus Mill permits various forms of government agency; numerous of which echo what later came to be accepted as causes of market failure, that prima facie could rationalize appropriate government intervention. Such grounds might be externalities in the stipulation of basic education and public services (like lighthouses), and the require to administer financial institutions against fraud, or to resolve diverse forms of what today would be called Prisoners’ Dilemmas. Mill also cited the relief of poverty as another potential reason for government involvement: The question arises whether it is better that they should receive this help exclusively from individuals, and therefore uncertainly and casually, or by systematic arrangements in which society acts through its organ, the state (Mill, 1909). Hence, he argued, the claim to help, . . . created by destitution, is one of the strongest which can exist; and there is prima facie the amplest reason for making the relief of so extreme an exigency as certain to those who require it, as by any arrangements in society it can be made (Mill, 1909). On the other hand, in all cases of helping, there are two sets of consequences to be considered; the consequences of the assistance, and the consequences of relying on the assistance. The former are generally beneficial, but the latter, for the most part, injurious; so much so, in many cases, as greatly to outweigh the value of the benefit. And this is never more likely to happen than in the very cases where the need of help is the most intense. There are few things for which it is more mischievous that people should rely on the habitual aid of others, than for the means of subsistence, and unhappily there is no lesson which they more easily learn. The problem to be solved is therefore one of peculiar nicety as well as importance; how to give the greatest amount of needful help, with the smallest encouragement to undue reliance on it (Mill, 1909). This is a discerning summary of both the attractions and consequences of welfare programmes, which has since been authorized empirically. Though, by assigning a larger and endogenous role for the state or public sector in the economy, Keynes set the way for the explanation of development policy in terms of a discretionary, type of economic management at the state level. You read "Development politics-political science" in category "Papers" Thus, planning came to be viewed as a helpful mechanism for overcoming the deficits of the market-price system, and for enlisting public sustain to attain national objectives linked to economic growth, employment formation, and poverty mitigation. It was against this backdrop that the pioneers of contemporary development economics developed Keynesian and Pigovian critiques of the market-price means to advocate the need for planned development. Since development could not be left completely to market forces, government investment was thought to be desired to create â€Å"social transparency capital† as a means of laying the basics for the developing countries to â€Å"take off† on the flight toward self-sustained economic growth. From the viewpoint of Pigovian externalities, the private sector could not be estimated to invest at adequately high levels in the formation of such forms of capital as of increasing returns to scale, technological externalities, and the reality that such investments tend to exhibit the characteristics of public goods. As neo-classical-type adjustment or marginal changes could not effectively address the problem at hand, planning was visualized as a necessary means of developing macroeconomic targets and providing the organizing efforts and consistency requisite for the preferences of society to be recognized. In the economic management of both the more developed and less developed countries, a good deal of controversy has surrounded Keynes’s advocacy of more state intervention. As he wrote in his Essays in Persuasion, â€Å"I think that capitalism, wisely managed, can probably be made more efficient for attaining economic ends than any alternative system yet in sight, but that in itself, it is in many ways extremely objectionable. Our problem is to work out a social organization which shall be as efficient as possible without offending our notions of a satisfactory way of life. â€Å" Contextually, Keynes’ rejection of laissez-faire cannot be construed as an support of the bureaucratic type of planning that was once popular in former socialist countries and the developing world. The issue had surfaced throughout the celebrated Socialist Calculation debate of the interwar years as a means of showing why a decentralized market economy is probable to provide a greater degree of socio-economic coordination than a central one. Specifically, Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek (1935) had argued that growing political involvement in the economic system would ultimately lead to totalitarian dictatorship. Hayekian anti-Keynesianism was to conduct in the idea of a â€Å"dirigiste dogma,† or the potential dangers innate in government solutions to economic and social problems. Yet, it can be contradicted that the â€Å"dogma† was perhaps more pertinent to his disciples than to Keynes himself. As, his analysis of the British economy throughout the thirties was based on assumptions concerning rationally functioning markets. The case for planning was restricted to the concern of a macroeconomic framework in which microeconomic choices could be reasonably orchestrated. The guiding viewpoint was that in the absence of a proper macroeconomic â€Å"enabling† environment, markets will engender the kind of stagnation implied in underemployment equilibrium. At the international level, as a result, the counter-revolution was translated into a revisionist loom to North-South relations based on an extolment of the advantages of Adam Smith’s â€Å"invisible hand† over the difficulties of the â€Å"visible hand† of statism. Contextually, the â€Å"poverty of development economics† has been accredited to the â€Å"policy induced, and thus far from expected distortions formed by irrational dirigisme† (Lal 1983: 1). In his view, conventional development economics was not simply too dogmatic and dirigiste in its orientation, but also sustained by a number of â€Å"fallacies,† including: (i) the belief that the price-market mechanism must be displaced rather than supplemented; (ii) that the efficiency gains from enhanced allocation of given resources are quantitatively irrelevant; (iii) that the case for free trade lacks soundness for developing countries; (iv) that government control of prices, wages, imports, and the allocation of productive assets is a indispensable prerequisite for poverty improvement; and (v) that rational maximizing behavior by economic agents is not a common phenomenon. Besides advocating a smaller role for the state, Lal also joins hands with Hayek in arguing that nothing must be done about income distribution. â€Å"We cannot . . . identify equity and efficiency as the sole ends of social welfare . . . Other ends such as liberty are also valued. . . . [And] if redistribution entails costs in terms of other social ends which are equally valued it would be foolish to disregard them and concentrate solely on the strictly economic ends† (Lal 1983: 89). This argument can be construed to mean that no matter how considerable the welfare gains that are probable to accrue from redistributive policies, no liberty is ever worth trading or forfeiting. Besides the ideological tunnel vision that lies at the heart of such a claim, it can be argued that the potential of attaining authentic development depend as much on the sensitivity of the state to distributive justice as on the competence and locative goals stressed in neoclassical economics or the â€Å"liberty† that is the focus of â€Å"new† classical political economy. Peter Bauer, another inner figure in the counter-revolution, challenges the major variations in economic structure and levels of developmental attainment among countries must be explained in terms of equivalent differences in resource endowments and individualistic orientations. This viewpoint rests on a basic belief that the inherent potentials of individuals can be drawn out throughout the play of market forces. Contextually, he states (1981: 8s), â€Å"the precise causes of differences in income and wealth are complex and various. . . . [I]n substance such differences result from people’s widely differing attitudes and motivations, and also to some extent from chance circumstances. Some people are gifted, hardworking, ambitious, and enterprising, or had farsighted parents, and they are more likely to become well off. â€Å" In turn, such attributes are measured accountable for the East Asian success stories, or a demonstration of the legality and correctness of the individualistic free market approach to economic development. In more general terms, the achievement of these countries is interpreted as a substantiation of the domain assumptions of neo-classical economic theory: that competent growth can be promoted by relying on free markets, getting prices to replicate real scarcities, liberalizing trade policy, and authorizing international price signals to be more generously transmitted to the domestic economy. On the whole idea, therefore, is that market-oriented systems with private incentives lean to show a superior performance in terms of growth attainment. In general, critics of the â€Å"dirigiste dogma† such as Hayek, Lal, and Bauer assert that, compared to countries in the more developed division of the world, most governments in the less developed sector lack the type of knowledge and data required for rational intervention, are often less democratic, and often exhibit motives that are at inconsistency with Keynesian-type or structuralist objectives of growth with redeployment and full employment. The reaction is that markets in both sectors of the world are less liberated than is usually supposed, lack the capability for making rational decisions, and particularly in the developing world, not always adequately organized to effectively convey the essential price signals. There is numerous element of truth in both the anti-Keynesian and Keynesian/structuralist perspectives. Where the balance is lastly drawn becomes an issue of ideology and slanted judgment rather than scientific economic analysis. In any event, the path follo wed by any particular country is typically constrained by its historical and socio-cultural situation. In addition, the obstruction of local forms of industrial development led to the configuration of a modern middle class of â€Å"petit bourgeoisie† comprising army officials, government bureaucrats, civil servants, teachers, and related cadres. In certain regions and countries, they integrated small traders, â€Å"progressive farmers,† â€Å"middle peasants,† and similar groups that come to obtain increasing importance in the absence of meaningful industrialization. They were to become the prime advocates of state capitalism and other forms of â€Å"national developmentalism. † In conclusion, approximately all states in the developing world are domineering in varying degrees. Several are classic cases of the predator or rentier state in which everything is part of a ruler’s individual fiefdom and high offices are up for sale to the highest bidders. There are a few cases, yet, where governments have established some measure of institutional consistency in the detection of collective development goals. Needless to say, the situation diverges from one historical or political framework to another. The majority of developing countries have no substitute but to rely on a strong and focused government to map out a strategic development way. The obstinate theoretical and practical question relics why different types of interventionist states with command over similar resources and instruments of control tend to show extremely conflicting development orientations and end up on dissimilar development paths. The consensual view is that the great majority have remained â€Å"regulatory† or â€Å"obstructionist† and are far back on the road to becoming real â€Å"development states† that portray the vision and capability needed to promote necessary development goals. Achievement of the latter depending not so much on the dimension of the government apparatus but more on its quality and efficiency. This has been established by the development experience of Nordic and East Asian countries, which have been thriving in meshing interventionist schemes with the market mechanism, as well as in cultivation resilient coalitions of modernizing interests in the structuring of national development agendas. Traditionally, such coalitions have resultant their integrity, credibility, and political legality from the nation’s collective aspirations. The centralization of decision making has been efficiently combined with flexibility in dealing with technical and market conditions. Goals and policies have been continually interpreted and reinterpreted on the basis of organizational networks between party organizations, public officials, and private entrepreneurs. This is not meant to propose that what has worked in the flourishing corporatist models of the Nordic countries and the Sinitic world, particularly Japan, can or should be replicated in the late-developing world. In the first place, the social and cultural homogeneity in both regions have made the counterfeiting of a political consensus much easier. Second, the tensions that continuously arise between the spoken interests of organized classes, pressure groups, and the state influential responsible for policy formulation and implementation cannot be resolved in a context free or institutionally neutral manner. The state remains a â€Å"strategic actor in the game of mixed conflict and cooperation amongst other groups† (Bardhan 1988: 65). Under the conditions, the nature of developmental outcomes eventually depends on its ability to determine conflicts and make compromises in an open political milieu. The directness of the political process determines the nature and efficacy of the development delivery system and the degree to which consensual relationships can be recognized and nurtured with labor, business, people’s organizations, and the rustic sector. How to cite Development politics-political science, Papers

Sources of Academic Stress free essay sample

The study further tries to make an in-depth investigation into each component of academic stress such as curriculum and instruction, team work related issues, assessment, and placement, to identify the micro issues that are causing stress. Around twelve micro issues have been identified under the curriculum and instruction component while four stresses were prioritize related to team work; five sub issues regarding assessment and three micro issues under placement components of academic stress.The sample comprises of 500 postgraduate management students from various management institutes spread across the Wrangle district of Andorra Pradesh in India. Data was collected through self designed academic stress questionnaire based on previous models available. Key. Fords: Stress; Academic stress; Student stress; Stress among management students; 1 . Introduction: Stress is a necessary and unavoidable concomitant of daily living-necessary because without some stress we would be listless and apathetic creatures, and unavoidable because it relates to any external event, be it pleasurable or incorporating. A persons response towards stress depends on whether an event is appraised as a challenge or a threat (Lazarus Folkway, 1984). Challenging stimulus can lead to positive outcomes such as motivation and improved task performance while threatening ones or distress can result in anxiety, depression, social dysfunction and even suicidal intention. Along with the improvements during the scientific era and the rapid development of information, competitiveness among people has become increasingly intense, as a consequence, people have become busier and, therefore, stress is a natural consequence.Even though appropriate stress is a juncture for self- growth, it is also a motivation for people to progress actively. It not only affects our thoughts and feelings UT our behavioral models, as well. However, overstress causes problems and discomfort, and can have serious effects on people. Specifically, student faces the stress when they enter a completely new world of professional education. Stress has become an important topic in academic circles.Many scholars in the field of behavioral science have carried out extensive research on stress and its outcomes and concluded that the topic needed more attention (Goal, 2009). Stress in academic institutions can have both positive and negative consequences if not well managed (Stevenson Harper, 2006). Academic institutions have different work settings compared to nonacademic and therefore one would expect the difference in symptoms, causes, and consequences of stress (Change L u, 2007). It is important to the society that students should learn and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills that will in turn make them contribute positively to the development of the general economy of any nation. It is important for page 32 of 12 the institutions to maintain well balanced academic environment conducive for better learning, with the focus on the students personal needs. Students eave different expectations, goals, and values that they want to fulfill, which is only possible if the students expectations, goals, and values are integrated with that of the institution (Goodman, 1993). . Academic Stress: Academic stress among students have long been researched on, and researchers have identified stresses as too many assignments, competitions with other students, failures and poor relationships with other students or lecturers (Freebooter Warn, 2003). Academic stresses include the students perception of the extensive knowledge base required and the perception of n inadequat e time to develop it (Carvers et al, 1996).Students report experiencing academic stress at predictable times each semester with the greatest sources of academic stress resulting from taking and studying for exams, grade competition, and the large amount of content to master in a small amount Of time (Absorbers, 1994). When stress is perceived negatively or becomes excessive, students experience physical and psychological impairment. Methods to reduce stress by students often include effective time management, social support, positive reappraisal, and engagement in leisure pursuits (Murphy Archer, 1996).The only scientific research that specifically related leisure satisfaction to academic stress was that of Ragged and McKinney (1993) who established a negative association between academic stress and leisure satisfaction. Institutional level stresses are overcrowded lecture halls, semester system, and inadequate resources to perform academic work (Amino Goal, 2008). The pressure to perform well in the examination or test and time allocated makes academic environment very stressful (Regretful Chafer, 2006).This is likely to affect the social relations both within the institution and outside which affects the individual persons life in terms of commitment to achieving the goals (Freebooter Warn, 2003). Knowing the causes of students stress will make the educational administrator know how to monitor and control the stress factors that are responsible for the students stress. Often, graduate students perceive that faculty exert great power over their lives and feel that they live in a state of substantial powerlessness (Latch, 1970).Another source of stress is the difficulty of achieving social intimacy. It is difficult to find a mate or maintain a relationship with an existing one. Graduate students tend to lack the time and/or the opportunity to develop interpersonal relationships (Hortatory, 1976). Fear of academic failure related to these tasks is a definite stresses (Kola, 1980). Thus, stresses affecting students can be categorized as academic, financial, time or health related, and self- imposed (Goodman, 1993). Academic stresses include the students an inadequate time to develop it ((Carvers et a, 1996). Students report small amount of time (Absorbers, 1994). College students have many obstacles to overcome in order to achieve their optimal academic performance. It takes a lot more than just studying to achieve a successful college career. Different stresses such as time management and social activities can all pose their own threat to a students academic performance. The way that Page 33 of 12 academic performance is measured is through the ordinal scale of grade point average (GAP). A students GAP determines many things such as class rank and entrance to graduate school.Much research has been done looking at the correlation of many stress factors that college students experience and the effects of stress on their GAP. Hatchet and Pres (1991) referred to these tress factors as academic situational constraints. Their study took into account a variety of factors that can diminish a students academic performance. An undergraduate study done by Neumann et al (1990) concludes that college students may in fact experience the burnout phenomenon due to learning conditions that demand excessively high levels of effort and do not provide supportive mechanisms that would facilitate effective coping.In a higher learning institutions where the demands placed on students are based on deadlines and pressure for excelling in tests or examination, the students are likely to be the victims of stress. This highlights the need for research to examine the sources of academic stress faced by students at various management institutions. With such knowledge, educationists will be able to pay more attention to the sources of academic stress of students and the use of counseling measures to assist students in the sound dev elopment of their bodies and mind. 2. . Stress Among Management Students: As the management education is an important medium that facilitates improvement of leadership qualities and turns out excellent future managers, which is quite evident. Students entering into the reflections education needs to face many challenges to which they have never been exposed earlier. The pressure to earn good grades and to earn a degree is very high (Hirsch Ellis, 1996). Other potential sources of stress include excessive homework, unclear assignments, and uncomfortable classrooms (Cohn Frazer, 1986).In addition to academic requirements, relations with faculty members and time pressures may also be sources of stress (Egan-Cohen Lomenta, 1988). It is important to the society that students should learn and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills that will in turn make them intricate positively to the development of the general economy of any nation. Do these situations really cause problems and academic stress? Do the differences in learning methods and teachers teaching methods, in addition to the assignments, tests , project and course selection, cause academic stress in students? . Review of Elite return: Types of role stress present among the engineering and management students in India was explored in a study conducted by Rakes Kumar Augural and Slanderer Sings Char (2007). Role overload, role stagnation and self-role distance were found to be the major stresses experienced by the students. Male students experienced more role stagnation than females. The results did not show any significant differences on any of the role stresses between first year students and their seniors, or between management and engineering students.The results of this study are helpful in understanding the social and educational environment prevailing in the country. Teachers often emphasize the acquisition of knowledge, so they often neglect the em otional feelings of students during the teaching process, which can cause emotional stress and learning problems for students. In addition, students may feel unfamiliar tuitions like nervousness, worry, frustration, abasement, depression, etc.The instability of these emotions easily initiates unusual behavior, which then affects the learning achievements and adjustment page 34 of 12 ability of students if appropriate timely counseling is not given by the institutions, teachers and parents, or if they cannot obtain appropriate concern from their peers or siblings (Chin et a, 2006). Raw K and D K Subsidiaries (2006) Of National Institute Of Mental Health and Neuron Sciences (MECHANISM) conducted an appraisal of stress and coping behavior, on a group of 258 male and female undergraduates.Packagers (2000) pointed out that the essential factors for the formation of stress are frequent and strong. There is a related connection between the results of stress and psychological and personality characteristics. College Chronic Life Stress Survey constructed by Thebes and Cohen (1996) focuses on the frequency of chroni c stress in the lives of college students. This scale contains items that persist across time to create stress, such as interpersonal conflicts, self- esteem problems, and money problems. These stresses were evaluated in relation to the number of times, a student had to deal with them on a weekly axis. It was found that with regard to chronic stress, first- year students scored higher than other students. Roach-Sings (1994) have examined sources of stress among undergraduates through similar studies. According to Hirsch and Ellis (1 996), the dynamic relationship between a person and the environment, in stress perception and reaction, is especially magnified in college students. The problems and situations encountered by college students may differ from those faced by their non-student peers.The most significant academic stresses reported were items that are time-specific or object specific which supports Carols (1963) contention that learning is a function of time allowed, aptitude, quality of instruction and ability to understand instruction. These core academic stresses were found to be relatively unchanged over time, as observed by Murphy and Archer (1996) who com pared the academic stresses of their previous study with those experienced eight years later (Archer Lamina, 1985). Past research found that collegiate stresses included: academics, social relationships, finances, daily hassles (for example, parking and being late) and familial relationships (Larson, 2006). Within each domain conflict, insufficient resources, time demands, and new responsibilities had characterized stress. 3. 1 . Purpose Of the Study. An initial approach in stress management is Often an analysis of the stresses, or events that have caused stress (Holmes Rare, 1967).In this regard, this study tries to identify the sources that resulted in stress for management students in various institutions spread across Wrangle District of the state of Andorra Pradesh. 4. Methodology: 4. 1 . Objectives: The principle objective of the study is: 1 To find out the components of academic stress experienced by management students. The sub objectives are as follows. 2. To analyze the curriculum and instruction related components responsible for stress. 3. To explore the team work related aspects creating stress among management students 4.To know the assessment related factors of academic stress. 5. To find out the placement related issues causing stress among management students. Page 35 of 12 4. 2. Hypotheses: Generally, most of the hypotheses are developed basing on the commonly held notions. This study also begins by assuming the following five hypotheses regarding the academic stress among the postgraduate management students. The assumptions are as follows. 1. That different components of academic work results in stress among management students. 2.That some issues of curriculum and instruction form the basis for stress among students. 3. That the team related work environment creates stress among management students. 4. That the assessment system is a cause of stress among management students. 5. That the placement activity contributes for stress among management students. 4. 3. Sample: Due to the limitations of human power and time, the sample was limited to 500 Post Graduate Management students from various management institutions bread across the Wrangle District of Andorra Pradesh, India. 4. 4.Measure: An academic stress scale for professional students was created for the study based on Holmes and Rashes Social Readjustment Rating Scale (1967), Student Stress Scale (Nines, Roth, 1985),leistering student stress developed from Burgees (2009), Organizational Stress Scale (OURS Scale) constructed by Parke (1993) and the 40-item revised Cope inventory by Ackerman and Eagan(2003). 5. Results and Analysis: The results of the study are discussed hereunder. The components of academic stress: Not surprisingly, much of the academic stress at graduate level is related to what students learn and how they learn it.Theres a lot of pressure for the present generation management students to learn more and more than in past generations. Just as it can be stressful to handle a heavy and challenging workload, some students can experience stress from regular academic work that isnt difficult enough. For the purpose of the present study, the components of academic activity are identified as curriculum and instruction; team work; assessment; and placement. The present study attempts to find out which of these aspects are creating stress among management students.HI : That different components of academic work results in stress among management students. The responses indicate that, among the identified four components of academic work, a large majority (86%) of the management students felt that daily class work is resulting in stress among them. The next component of academic stress is related to placement activity since around 63% of the respondents have given second priority to this factor. Assessment aspect of the academics is given third priority by 41% of the management student.Another component of academic work group assignments, was treated fourth on priori ¶y scale by around 24% of the dents. Hence it is clearly evident that the four identified components of academic work are responsible for academic stress among the management students. In this context, the study further tries to analyses different sub issues of each of the above components to gain an in depth knowledge about the specific sources of stresses in an academic setting of a management institute. Page 36 of 12 Fig-I: Components of academic stress.Curriculum Instruction 100% 86% 80% 60% 40% Placement related 20% 0% 24% Assessment related 5. 1 . Curriculum and Instruction Related Stresses: Curriculum and instruction form the basis for the academic activity. Any institution or any course cannot fulfill the academic requirements without the predetermined curriculum and structured instruction. Each course has a minimum requirement of instruction hours of the specified curriculum. Hence class work is an integral part of any academic endeavourer. There is no substitute for class work in academics. Moreover, class work forms the main body of the course. Students have to participate in the curriculum and instruction process by attending the regular class work and fulfill the class work requirements in the form of completion of assignments, reading and understanding the specified epics, complying with the minimum attendance requirements, completing the group tasks compulsory for assessment and so on. Any student of academics, at whatever level of study he/she may be, must fulfill these requirements to complete the course. Naturally, such well structured academic activity results in stress among a major portion of the students.There is no way to escape or avoid and coping with Team work the resultant stress related is inevitable. In this context, the study attempts to gain further understanding of the specific issues of the curriculum and instruction aspect which are causing stress among the management students. H2O: That some issues of curriculum and instruction form the basis for stress among students. The open ended responses receiv ed resulted in an exhaustive list of twelve factors that cause stress regarding curriculum and instruction aspect of academic stress. The issues of regularly attending classes to comply with the minimum attendance requirements and achieving academic goals are the major factors of academic stress among the management students as above 60% of the students have given first and second preferences respectively. The next dominant sub issues of academic tress were choosing specialization (56%) and handling class work (54%) followed by the issues of the amount of material to study and studying for tests and exams which attracted Page 37 of above 40% responses.Further the sub issues like participating in oral presentations fear of failing or lagging behind others in some subjects, writing essays and assignments, and contribution to class discussion were noteworthy since they were given weighting by above 20% of the sample group. Some important aspect of academic stress. Since the students hailing from different places, religions, cultures and societies are admitted into an institution. Once they are part of the class, the f ormal groups are made by the faculty or administration for inculcating the spirit of team work culture among the more sub components resulting in academic students.Definitely these formal grouping is stress were learning all the material and not done on the basis of habits, preferences, keeping pace with regular learning. Some and the individual likes and dislikes. Thus, other issues which were mentioned by a there is a great scope that this may be a meager percentage Of the respondents were potential stresses in academics specifically omitted from the discussion. N the case of management students. 5. 2.Teamwork Related Stresses: At the The study attempted to explore the sub student stage it is felt that mixing with the issues of group work aspect which serve the randomly made formal teams for the sake of sources of academic stress among the group assignments and presentations is an management students. HA: That the team related work environment creates stress among man cement students. Among the four factors provided for proportioning by the sample group, the issue of adjusting with the group mindset was opted to be the dominant factor by 60% of the sample group.The next preference was given to the issue of communicating with the team members as well as the class members (52%) followed by making joint presentations with 38%. Around 30% Of the students said that completing group assignments was another source of stress among them. This clearly indicates that students, faculty and the academic administrators have to concentrate on imparting group skills without allowing the students prone to stress. Page 38 of 12 5. 3. Assessment Related Stresses: Assessment is a central element in the overall quality of teaching and learning in higher education. Well designed assessment sets clear expectations, establishes a reasonable workload and provides opportunities for students to self- monitor, rehearse, practice and receive feedback. Assessment is an integral component of a students general attitudes towards studying. Students often explained negative attitudes in terms of their experiences of excessive workloads or inappropriate forms of assessment. The experience of learning is made less satisfactory by assessment methods which are perceived to be inappropriate ones. High achievement in conventional terms may mask this coherent educational experience.The repertoire Of assessment methods in use in higher education has expanded considerably in recent years. New assessment methods are developed and implemented in higher education, for example: self and peer assessment, portfolio assessment, simulations, and Overall assessment. The latest constructivist theories and practices go together with a shift from a test or evaluation culture to an assessment culture (Barnum, 1996). The students perceived assessment requirements seem to have a strong relation with the approach to learning a student adopts when tackling an academic task.Similar findings emerged from the Lancaster investigation (Renamed, 1 981 ) in relation to a whole series of academic tasks and also to dissatisfaction and also hide the fact that students have not understood material they have learned as completely as they might appear to have done. Giddier (1987) found that multiple choice type exams are generally perceived more favorably than essay type items along most dimensions of the inventory (I. E. Perceived difficulty, anxiety, complexity, success expectancy, feeling at ease), by both boys and girls.Furthermore, it was found that students perceive essay type exams to be somewhat more appropriate than little choice exams for the purpose of r eflecting ones knowledge in the subject matter tested. Assessment is therefore a potent strategic tool for educators with which to spell out the learning that will be rewarded and to guide students into effective approaches to study. Page 39 of 12 Equally, however, poorly designed assessment has the potential to hinder learning or stifle curriculum innovation.But designing assessment to influence students patterns of study in positive ways can present significant challenges. In this context, the study aims at finding the sub factors which ere causing the academic stress among the management students. HA: That the assessment system is a cause of stress among management students. Meeting the deadlines of assessment serves the principle source (82%) of stress followed by lack of clarity fomenting dead the assessment good grades through the assessment process was the cause of worry for about 50% of the students whereas around 40% were worried about sitting for the tests.Thus the above five sub issues of assessment are the apparent stresses for management students. 5. 4. Place meet Related Stresses: Placement of the management students with the fast growing private sector impasses is a recent phenomenon. In fact, many of the students join management courses with an intention to achieve better placement with good corporate. The institutes also are working towards meeting the needs of their students.Hence, due to the importance given to this aspect, the lines Fig-4: Assessment 100% researchers are forced to 82% related stresses include this aspect as a 80% potential source of 60% academic stress among the High weighting Getting good 40% students of management 66% components grades 52% 20% course. Many a time 0% students are worried about their future placement. Naturally this worry rises 41% to the level of anxiety and 72% results in stress among Sitting for tests Lack of clarity many students.Hence, the study attempted to find out the model (72%). Around 66% of the students sub issues of placement aspect responsible were apprehensive about the high weight for creating stress among the management age components of the assessment. Getting students. HA: That the placement activity contributes for stress among management students. Facing the placement interview itself was the dominant Stresses for the sample group as around 90% expressed the same. Many people want to work in the locations of their preferences.

Shylock and Antonio in essays

Shylock and Antonio in essays One of the main themes of The Merchant of Venice is Good verses Evil. By incorporating characters into this theme, the two I see as most fitting are Antonio, representing good, friendship and honesty and Shylock as Antonios enemy, represents evil and dishonesty. Therefore the character of whom I most admire is Antonio, as he stands for all that is good. As much as I admire Antonio, I dislike Shylock, who has no mercy for those around him and would probably exact a harsh revenge even on his best of friends. We first meet Shylock in (Act I (scene iii)) where Bassanio seeks out Shylock for a loan in Antonios name, it is the first we hear of the Jews hatred for Antonio, I hate him for he is a Christian. (Act I (scene iii) ) This shows the reasons for Shylocks hatred towards Antonio, both financially and religiously. Any chance he can get, he will destroy Antonios life and fortune. This is proved by what he says later on in Act I scene iii, If I can once catch him upon the hip, I will feed fat the grudge against him. While the bond is being decided Shylock hides his hate for Antonio and instead misleads him to believe their differences have been forgotten and that friendship has shone through. This is to entrap Antonio in order to hold him into a bond, which most certainly will end up feeding Shylocks revenge even more. If Antonio defaults then Shylock is to take a pound of Antonios flesh, Taken in what part of your body pleaseth me. (Act I (scene iii)) We know Antonio thinks of Shylock as a friend by what he says in (Act I (scene iii)), The Hebrew will turn Christian, he grows kind. However, this friendship is dependent on him changing religion. There can be no possibility of compatibility if he remains Jewish. For the rest of Act I and II we hear little of Shy...

How To Schedule Your WordPress Blogging Workflow

How To Schedule Your WordPress Blogging Workflow When you decide you want to take your blog seriously, youll begin to consider your WordPress blogging workflow. Whats a WordPress blogging workflow? Its the process that takes you from start to finish for each of your blog posts, the way you make it happen.  Perhaps things have changed from when you started to blog, and its not enough to dash off a post when inspiration strikes. Now youre considering other things, such as readers and traffic and page rank and building a platform. Understanding The WordPress Blogging Workflow Any blog, no matter if it is a solo blog, team blog, or agency blog for a client, has a similar WordPress  blogging workflow foundation. Each step leads on to the next as you build your post up from bare idea to completed content. With great ideas comes great responsibility. Make sure you have a place to save them. #BloggingTips1. Organize Your Blogging Ideas With great ideas comes great responsibility.  Idea generation, storage, and access are the foundation of your blog posts, but it is also the step most bloggers struggle with. Its not that they have a shortage of ideas, necessarily, but they need a way to manage them. Your system for organizing your ideas must account for: Jotting your ideas down. Will you use a mobile app that syncs with a service you can access back on your laptop? Or, will you rely on a blogging notebook, perhaps? Catalog your ideas. You will need to find a way to organize your ideas so you can find them again should you need them or want to add new research to them. Even the best search function cant always account for everything, and it certainly doesnt beat out how you already think about the categories of content on your blog. Churning ideas up. Create a system where you regularly dive into old ideas to find those you want to use, and delete those that are no longer applicable or that you dont want to cover. Without this kind of system, your ideas quickly bloat and overwhelm and its hard to know where to start or even know what you have to work with. A key to great idea management is to use a tool youre already using and familiar with, thats already part of other workflows or your daily life, perhaps–anything you dont have to rely on forming a new habit around. Because we work heavily in WordPress, we make apt use of s organizational abilities that connect directly with WordPress. We make selections based on category, and, because it is on a calendar, we get a birds-eye-view of whats coming so that ideas dont drop to the bottom and are forgotten. Do you have a system that churns your ideas up? Or are your best blog ideas forgotten in the pile?2. Schedule Your Ideas On The Calendar People schedule at different points in the blogging workflow process. Some prefer to not put mere work-in-progress ideas on the calendar, but instead wait until they are completed posts. We put the ideas on the calendar before we move forward for this blog, and I do the same for my own blogs. When you put the scheduling of posts into place at this point in the process, the date becomes the determining factor. All the rest of the following activities are centered around the date the post will be published. Scheduling now means you are choosing the best time for the post based on the idea and how it fits into the editorial calendar content. This is the method we use here when we schedule blog posts. We simply drag our ideas around on the calendar, automatically syncing the changes in WordPress as we do so. 3. Collaboration And Communication Solo bloggers are probably not used to this step as they perfect their WordPress blogging workflow, since they are writing completely on their own.  But a team?  For the want of collaboration, the blog was lost. Some of the ever-important things youll want to communicate and collaborate on in your WordPress blogging workflow is: Who is writing the post? When is the post due? Is someone creating the graphics or finding an image? What do the rest of you think about my post? Should I make changes? Are these the most recent updates to the post? (Especially important when writers arent working in WordPress) Who is finalizing the post? Unless your team of writers is functioning as a collection of solo bloggers with no style guides, no oversight, no uniform message, and as a general free-for-all, you will need a way to collaborate.  has collaboration built-in for each synced blog post that combines back-and-forth conversation with assigned and dated tasks; this is the system I use for all of my blogs, both at work and personal. 4. Review And Edit Your Post The reviewing and editing process is what takes the raw material and polishes it up. Your WordPress blogging workflow will want to include this in the timeline. It includes review and critique within the team, and client review if youre an agency. For our team, the process looks like this: Content planning meeting for the next two weeks of content. Write the posts youre supposed to write. Assign a team member the task of reviewing it. The team member reviews the post based on topic and content (not typos and grammar), and offers suggestions. The writer reworks the post as needed. The editor then proofs the post for typos and grammar before publishing. We rely heavily on peer review here, and use to do it. Each blog posts gets a running commentary on headline suggestions, keyword ideas, changes to the content of the post, and image suggestions.

Democratization in the Third Wave European Countries Essay

Democratization in the Third Wave European Countries - Essay Example There have been three waves of democratization. The first wave started in the 1820’s, as suffrage widened and more citizens in Europe demanded their rights (Huntington 1991, p.3). It started in the US and then spread across the British dominion (Huntington 1984, p.196). However, in 1922 Mussolini came to power, which marked the return to autocracies. By the end of World War II, only 12 democracies were left, in comparison to 29 beforehand (Huntington 1991, p.3). The second wave was supported, and imposed by the Allied Forces after World War II. In 1962, the zenith was reached with 36 democracies (Huntington 1991, p.3). Many of them were also former colonies (Huntington 1991, p. 31 – 108). After 1962, democracy again experienced a decline (Jaggers & Gurr 1995, 477). In 1974, the third wave started. This wave was marked by the shifts to democracy in Portugal, Greece and Spain (Huntington, 1991, p.4). The Catholic Church became an opponent of autocracies in the 1960’s (Huntington 1991, p.77). The European Union (EU), then known as the European Community (EC), conditioned the benefits of access to their markets on democratization. Greece joined EC in 1981, and Spain and Portugal followed. By 1994, according to Jaggers and Gurr (1995, p.479), there were 50 percent democracies and only 18 percent autocracies in the world. However, they also classified countries into incoherent systems, claiming that 19 percent countries were autocracies and 13 percent democracies (Jaggers & Gurr, 1995, p.479).... 31 – 108). After 1962, democracy again experienced a decline (Jaggers & Gurr 1995, 477). In 1974, the third wave started. This wave was marked by the shifts to democracy in Portugal, Greece and Spain (Huntington, 1991, p.4). The Catholic Church became an opponent of autocracies in the 1960’s (Huntington 1991, p.77). The European Union (EU), then known as the European Community (EC), conditioned the benefits of access to their markets on democratization. Greece joined EC in 1981, and Spain and Portugal followed. By 1994, according to Jaggers and Gurr (1995, p.479), there were 50 percent democracies and only 18 percent autocracies in the world. However, they also classified countries into incoherent systems, claiming that 19 percent countries were autocracies and 13 percent democracies (Jaggers & Gurr, 1995, p.479). These are less stable than coherent systems. Papaioannou and Siourounis (2008, p.384) determined that among 174 countries between 1960 and 2005, there were 63 democratic transitions and 3 reverse transitions from relatively stable democracy to autocracy. In the 1990’s, it was questionable whether young democracies were going to survive. According to Shin (1994, p.137), since governments depend on people or demos, democracy can only survive if people support it. However, at the time, newly democratic countries lacked factors that facilitate democratization such as civic organizations and market economies (Shin 1994, p.137). According to Rose and Shin (2001, p.334), â€Å"[w]hile the third wave has increased by 77 per cent the number of countries holding competitive elections, the number of countries recognizing political and civil liberties has increased by only 40 per cent.† As a result, the third wave in many

Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 14

Globalization - Essay Example s affected by it; in fact, it can be said that it undermines state sovereignty because decisions that are made have to consider their impact on international affairs (Shimko 192). An example of this is oil-exporting countries that heavily depend on the income from this product to fund their national budgets. If these countries were to act in a way which displeases the international community, then they would be forced to abandon such decisions through the placing of sanctions on their exports. Moreover, because of globalization, many countries have interests in other countries; therefore, to protect these interests, it has become necessary for the powerful to meddle in the political affairs of the weaker ones (Yang170). This has not only made the latter countries lose their sovereignty, but it has also encouraged their overdependence on more developed nations for economic aid. Cultural diversity loosely refers to the variety and differences in race, ethnicity, and class that are present in a society, state, or the world. Different races have diverse cultures or customs; for  example, in a  traditional  Mexican  wedding; there is a  distinct  ceremony  where  a rosary  or  white  rope  is wound around  the  bride  and  groom  to form a number eight.  Languages, cuisine and mode of dressing are also part of cultural diversity notwithstanding the conformity to everyday way of living by people of a certain society (Mueller 71). History profoundly determines these aspects, but they are mostly affected by the environment. This implies the people who develop the cultural resources and control access to the culture itself. While trying to achieve globalization, cultural diversity has developed since the core idea behind it is ‘speaking a common language’. This is because globalization includes transformation of a s patial organization, which in turn means wide-ranging institutional reform institutions formed with a large influence from culture. Many argue that

Human Genome Project: Legal, Ethical and Social Implications

Human Genome Project: Legal, Ethical and Social Implications In this dissertation we consider the human genome project in its wider context. We take a brief overview of the aims, the working and the sequencing techniques used together with the timeline achieved. The ability to sequence genes has given a greater understanding of the human genome. This understanding has thrown up a great many legal, social medical and ethical problems and dilemmas which clearly need tube both addressed and solved. This dissertation looks at many of the issues, analyses them, and considers some of the possible solutions. We primarily consider the situation in the UK, but comparisons are drawn with the arguably more litigious society in the USA, particularly in consideration of the legal implications of the subject. We make a consideration of the ethical position of researchers, medical professionals and also individuals whether they are considered as research subjects or simply as private citizens. We draw conclusions from our findings and present them. Introduction The Human Genome Project (HGP) was a vast and ambitious concept which was conceived in the 1980s and formally started in 1990, the main stated aim of which was to achieve the mapping of the entire human genome. It was originally anticipated that the process would take approximately 15 years and was therefore scheduled to be complete in2005/6 but the advances in technological hard and software improved sequencing ability to the extent that the entire undertaking was actually completed in 2003. The project itself involved over 1,000 principal scientists in over 200Universities, Government laboratories and private facilities. The stated and defined primary goals of the project were to: identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA, determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, store this information in databases, improve tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project. (after Collins FS et al 1998), Although the project was primarily about the sequencing of the human genome, part of the intrinsic preparatory work was carried out in the sequencing techniques of other organisms such as E Coli and Drosophila(the fruit fly) Brief description of the genome The genome of an organism is a term which relates to the sum total of the DNA of the organism. This is replicated in virtually every cell in the organism and it should be noted that it includes not only the nuclear DNA but the extra-nuclear DNA as well. It is the basic code for making all of the constituent proteins and thereby it is the ultimate determinant of the various processes that occur within the organism. The human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs (abbreviated as A T G C). These are arranged in sequential style in the DNA double helix and are unique to an individual. There are large areas of repetition and large areas which appear to be â€Å"biologically silent† but we shall discuss this in rather greater detail later in this dissertation. (Nichols, E.K. 1998) Sequencing techniques used The eventual sequence derived in the human genome project does not represent anyone individual’s genome. The original samples were taken from multiple sperm and blood (from females) donations which were mixed and sent to labs across the world. The differences were comparatively insignificant as the vast majority (99.7+%) of the genomic sequence is identical in every individual.(Collins et al 2001) Sperm is used, as the DNA : protein ratio is higher in sperm than for other cells and is therefore easier to prepare. It should be noted that sperm contains both the male and female sex chromosomes (X Y) so equal numbers of each were added to the samples and the blood DNA was added to ensure that female derived DNA was also present. The original sequencing techniques (in the 1990s) were primarily those of gel electrophoresis, which is slow, labour intensive and expensive. It was reported that the entire human genome project team managed to sequence 200Mb of gene in 1998. Advances in technology and automotive processing allowed one participant (DOE Joint genome institute) to sequence 1.5 billion bases in one month in January 2003. (Soga, Kakazuet al 2004) It was the discovery and large-scale implementation of the capillary gel electrophoresis technique that was mainly responsible for these advances. One of the major advantages of the capillary tube method is that the comparatively larger surface area of the capillary tube allows for greater heat dissipation which was the rate limiting step for the older models as too much heat would melt the gel carrier. (Tsai et al.2004) The actual mechanism for sequencing is extremely complex but in essence each chromosome, which comprises between 50 and 250 million base pairs, is fragmented into more manageable size pieces. (the sub cloning step).Each piece is then set up as a template from which a set of smaller fragments are generated, each one is a base pair shorter than the parent (the template preparation and sequencing reaction steps). (Marsha et al 2004) The resulting fragments are separated by electrophoresis which is an ideal method because of their differing size (separation step). The end base of each fragment is then identified (base-calling step). Automated sequencers then can analyse the resulting patterns which will give representation of the base order which is then â€Å"reassembled† into blocks of about 500 bases each (for ease of handling the data) . Number of very sophisticated computer programmes then analyse the raw data for potential errors and can identify specific genes and silent areas (Krill P et al 2000) Once sequenced, the final details are placed in the public domain such as Embank for open access to all. We have made several references to the draft and final sequences. The explanation of the difference lies in the fact that there are both intrinsic errors in the processing and also in the variability of the genetic material used. The original draft sequence was published in June 2000. This was the result of each area being analysed at least 4-5times to minimise the errors. This original data was presented inspections of about 10,000 base pairs and the chromosomal locations of the genes were known at this stage. A higher quality â€Å"final† reference sequence was published in April 2003which represented a 8-9 fold sequencing of every chromosome to fill in gaps and to minimise errors which were quoted as being no more than one in 10,000 bases (Kaiser et al 2004) Human genome project timeline 1990 Official commencement of HGP work Apr. 1998 HGP passes sequencing midpoint March 1999 Target completion date for â€Å"Human genome Working Draft† accelerated to early 2000 Dec 1999 Human Chromosome 22 sequenced (first human chromosome ever sequenced) May 2000 Human Chromosome 21 sequenced March 2000 Drosophila genome completed April 2000 Draft sequences of Human Chromosome 5, 16 19 completed June 2000 Working draft of DNA sequence achieved Dec 2001 Human Chromosome 20 sequenced Dec 2002 Complete Mouse genome draft publication Jan 2003 Human Chromosome 14 sequenced June 2003 Human Chromosome Y sequenced July 2003 Human Chromosome 7 sequenced Oct 2003 Human Chromosome 6 sequenced March 2004 Human Chromosome 13 19 sequenced May 2004 Human Chromosome 9 10 sequenced Sept 2004 Human Chromosome 5 sequenced Oct 2004 Human gene count estimates changed from 20,000 to 25,000 Dec 2004 Human Chromosome 16 sequenced March 2004 Human Chromosome X sequenced April 2005 Human Chromosome 2 4 sequenced Legal issues Patenting The whole issue of patenting the genome and the offshoots of the project caused an enormous furore in medical, scientific and pharmaceutical circles. The opposing ends of the spectrum argued that, on the one hand, the benefits of such a fundamentally important piece of work should be freely available for the human race in general and the scientific community in particular, to the other who believed that the money to be made by the commercial exploitation of the genome could be used to finance other related projects. (Nuffield 2002) The culmination of the argument was that the genome was fragmented and patented piecemeal. In order to fully understand the implications of this we must explore the workings of the patent system. In the UK, patents are issued by the Patent Office. Applications must be received within 18 months of the discovery (it is 3 years in the USA). Once granted, they remain in force for 20 years from the date of issue. In order to be considered suitable for a patent to be issued a product must generally satisfy four criteria, namely: Useful – the patent application must be accompanied by some practical application of the invention (whether it has actually been applied or has been proposed in a purely theoretical sense) Novel – it must be a new, or previously unknown entity. Non-obvious –it must be a significant modification that is not simply a minor adjustment made by someone with appropriate skill and training in that particular area Detailed – the item must be described in sufficient detail to allow person who has appropriate training in the field to use it for the purpose for which it was designed. This is often referred to as the â€Å"enablement criterion† ( after Cochran and Cox. 1997) The academic argument referred to earlier was intensified by the knowledge that raw products of nature are not generally patentable. Special provision had to be made by the agencies on both sides of the Atlantic to allow for patents to be issued for genetic material. The general guiding principal in issuing patents is that they are issued on a â€Å"first to invent† basis. Where a specific application is not immediately obvious (as is the case with many pharmaceutical and bio-tech products), provisional patents can be applied for and enforced for up to one year after either discovery or publication of the findings. This is a mechanism to allow for the full implications of the finding to be worked out and patented.(Nickols F 2004) In specific reference to our considerations here, we should note that with bio-tech discoveries in general and DNA patents in particular, coincident with the application for a patent, the applicant is required to deposit a sample of their discovery in any one of 26 designated biological culture repositories which are distributed throughout the world. (Bjorn tad DJ, et al. 2002) It is a reflection of both the scale and importance of this work to appreciate that to date, there have been over 3 million separate genome-related applications for patents received on file throughout the world. The legal ramifications of this process are huge. In the UK, USA and Japan (where the bulk of the applications for genome-related patents are filed) the system requires that the details of the applications are kept completely confidential until the full patent is finally issued. As we have discussed, this process can take up to a year. (Brown,2000) The corollary of this fact is that those scientists and companies who utilise the data ( which is available on the Internet) to evaluate clinical or pharmaceutical applications of gene sequences risk the issuing of a future injunction if it transpires that those particular sequences have been the subject of a previous patent application which has subsequently turned out to be successful. (Morris AH 2002) The 3 million genome related patents include the genes themselves, gene fragments, tests for specific genes, various proteins and stem cells. To satisfy the Patent Office the four tests set out above are specifically modified to accommodate genetic material thus: (1) identify novel genetic sequences, (2) specify the sequences product, (3) specify how the product functions in nature i.e., its use (4) enable one skilled in the field to use the sequence for its stated purpose (after Caulfield 2003) Even this is not completely sufficient for the current needs of science. If we take the example of gene fragments. Their function is often not known although their structure almost invariably is. The practical applications can be extremely vague. A quoted utility of a gene fragment has been cited as â€Å"providing a scientific probe to help find another gene†. Clearly it could cause substantial practical difficulties if a patent were to be issued on such a basis, and the subsequent usage was found to be substantially different, it would not invalidate the patent. The significance of this can be fully appreciated if we consider that the typical gene fragment, comprising about 500 bases (known as expressed sequence tags or ESTs) actually represent typically about20-30% of the active chromosomal genetic material, the full chromosome may be about 40-60 times larger than this. The active chromosomal genetic material is often referred to as canal and typically only contains its information-rich (or exon) regions. The scientific importance of these gene segments are that they represent very useful tools for research as they can duplicate the actions of genes, can be synthesised in the laboratory, and remove the need for scientists to manipulate the entire gene. (HUGO 2000) It can therefore be clearly be appreciated that such gene fragments are very useful tools in genetic research and the granting of patents touch entities has sparked off another major controversy in the scientific community. There have been major representations to the various Patent Offices throughout the world not to grant such patents to these universally important entities to applicants who have neither determined the base sequence of the genes nor yet determined their function and possible uses. As a result of this, the UK and USA Patent Offices decided to issue more stringent guidelines (effective as from 2001) which required that an application for patent of a gene fragment must now specifically state how the fragment functions before a patent can be issued. The wording is specific and substantial utility that is credible, but is still considered by many to be too indeterminate. (Thompson 1992) The basis behind the objections stem from the two main arguments already put forward. Firstly the patenting of such a â€Å"bottleneck or gatekeeper† product can seriously hinder the eventual development or even the characterisation of more complex molecules. Secondly, scientists are obviously wary of utilising such entities because of the possible financial constraints and penalties that would be imposed if the particular entity that they were using subsequently was found to bathe subject of a provisional (and therefore initially secret) patent application. In essence the patent of the gene fragment could be taken out after a comparatively small amount of scientific work and exert totally disproportionate control over the possible commercial and scientific development of more advanced genome research. (Schwarz D teal 1997), There are also less obvious, but very practical, implications to this type of patenting. Let us consider the situation where patents have been separately applied for, and granted to gene fragments, the gene and various proteins that the gene expresses. Any scientist wishing to-do research in that area has not only to pay the various license holders for permission to use their patented entity, but there are also hidden costs in the research necessary to determine where (and whether)the patents have been granted. (Short ell SM et al 1998), Not all research has been hampered or driven by the restrictive practices that the issuing of patents inevitably promotes. Let us consider the case of the Welcome Foundation who, in collaboration with ten other smaller pharmaceutical concerns, agreed to form a non-profitmaking consortium whose stated goal was to find and map out an initial300,000 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). To date they have discovered nearly 2 million. In a truly philanthropic gesture they generated a publicly available SNP map of the human genome in which they patented every SNP found solely for the purpose of preventing others from making financial profit from them and making the information available to the public domain. The SNP is a single variation in the base sequence in the genome and they are found, on average, about one in every 500 base units. It can occur in an active or in a non-coding region. The effect will clearly vary depending upon the actual site of the variation but they are believed to be a fundamental cause of genetic variation which could give researchers important clues into the genetic basis of disease process or variations in responsiveness to pharmaceuticals. (Russell SJ1997) In addition it is believed that SNPs are responsible for variations in the way that humans respond to a multitude of potential pathogens and toxins. The SNP is therefore an invaluable tool in the research behind multifactorial disease process where complex environmental and genetic interactions are responsible for the overall phenotypic expression of the clinical disease state. (Santis,G et al 1994). We have referred in passing to the arguments that are currently raging relating to the issues on patenting genetic material. We should therefore consider the question of why patent at all? Would we be better off if the patent offices did not accept patents of genetic material? On first examination of the situation one might think that scientific investigation, in general terms, might proceed faster if all scientists had unlimited and free access to all information in the public domain. More careful consideration suggests however, the laws relating to intellectual property are built on the assumption that unless ownership and commercial profits can be reasonably secure (by means such as patents) few organisations would be willing to make the substantial investment that is typically necessary for development and research. The reasoning behind the mechanism of patenting intellectual property is therefore the marrying together of the need to secure a potential income from one’s work with the ability to allow the transparency of full publication of one’s discoveries which will therefore allow others to consider and utilise the information in their own research. (Berwick. 1996) Consideration of this point will suggest that the only other effective means of safeguarding the costs of one’s research would be total secrecy which clearly would not be in the general interest of the scientific community. If we add to the general thrust of this argument, the fact that, in general terms, the costs of development(post-invention) far outweigh the costs of research (pre-invention) we can see the economic sense in allowing innovative research-based firms the financial security of development by preserving the profit incentives by means of the Patent. (DGP 2002) In general terms we could view the patent mechanism as a positive development.(McGregor D 1965). Perhaps it is the breadth and number of the patents allowed in the field of genomic research that is the prime cause of unease in the scientific community. Special cases The arguments presented above can be broadened further if one of the natural extensions of the human genome project is the research into the possibility of cloning. We will not consider the (currently totally illegal) possibility of human cloning per se, but the therapeutic embryo cloning for the purposes of harvesting human stem cells. Such cells have immense potential for the study and therapy of a great number of disease process. As such they have enormous value as both intellectual and commercial property. The background to our discussion here includes consideration of the fact that courts in both the UK and the USA (Diamond v. Chakrabarty1980) have set precedents that single celled organisms (genetically modified bacteria) were intrinsically patentable. Legal argument then followed and shortly after there were similar rulings in favour of the patentability of simian stem cells. It logically follows that human stem cells should be afforded the same legal protection. The problem arises then that such a move would offend other legal principles such as technical ownership of another human being.(PGA 2001) Clearly there are enormous, and some would say insurmountable, difficulties in this region. We present this point simply to illustrate the potential difficulties surrounding ownership of the human genome. Broader legal issues Matters relating to the legal implications arising from the human genome project already fill countless volumes and we do not propose to make an exhaustive examination of the subject. There are however, number of major issues that arise either directly or indirectly from this project. They are largely interlinked with major social and ethical considerations and society, as a whole, has looked to the law to provide authoritative answers to some of them. (Stripling R et al.1992) One of the major problems associated with the potential ability to decipher the human genome is what to do with the information that it gives us. The ability to â€Å"read genes† brings with it the ability to discriminate with increasing degrees of subtlety. Discrimination is inevitably linked (historically, at least) with varying degrees of injustice. Whether it is the more obvious forms of discrimination such as insurance loading on the basis of predisposition to disease traits or more insidious and pernicious scenarios such as the ability to discriminate by genetic association with various ethnic groups, the ability is there. Will it become acceptable to refuse a mortgage application on the grounds that a person has been found to have a genetic disposition towards gastric cancer? Could health insurance premiums be based on an interpretation of various aspects of one’s genome? Some lawyers have already voiced their concerns about the ability of the law to provide genetic defences where it may be possible to challenge prosecutions on the ability to undermine the ethical principle of the validity of individual responsibility. The concept of free-will may be legally challenged in the prospect of discovery of various genetic traits that may predispose the individual to any one oaf number of behaviour patterns such as antisocial or thrill-seeking behaviour or violence. (Laurie G 2004) We currently accept that some manifestations of the human genome are now routinely enshrined in virtually unchallengeable law. DNA identification in criminal law is commonplace and scarcely questioned. Paternity suits are settled on the basis of genetic make-up. It doesn’t take a quantum leap of intuition to appreciate that there may soon be potential negligence cases brought against physicians and the like who fail to warn patients against the possibility of developing the ever increasing number of disease processes that are thought to have a genetic predisposition or component. The converse of that dilemma is should we expect physicians to suppress information found by genetic testing if there is no known cure? It follows that if we do not then people could be condemned to live with the knowledge that they are statistically likely to develop any one oaf number of diseases that they may very well, in other circumstances, have chosen to live in ignorance of. (Hyde, SC et al. 1993) Such cases have already surfaced, unsurprisingly in the USA. The estate of a colonic cancer victim unsuccessfully tried to sue a physician who failed to warn him about a genetic predisposition to colonic cancer from which he subsequently died. (Safer v Estate of Peck 1996) Some measures have been taken to try to protect exploitation of the genetic status of individuals where it is known. In the USA, some 16states have enacted laws to prevent both health and other insurance companies from using any form of genetic information to load premiums or to refuse cover. The initial reaction to these moves was one of delight, but it soon became clear that this was only of any potential value when the individual was asymptomatic. There was no bar to premium levels once the symptoms became apparent. To some extent, although the same level of legal prohibition does not apply in the UK, there is little difference. In this country, insurance companies will still load premiums or refuse cover once symptoms are apparent. (Rothstein MR1999) Social and medical considerations As we have implied earlier in this piece, the fundamental nature and importance of the human genome project to humanity as a whole means that its impact has great implications for the fields of law, ethics and social considerations. This is hardly surprising as, at the most basic level, all these three considerations are inextricably linked. Many of the social implications are also tied up with medical considerations and therefore we shall consider both of these elements together. Humans, as a race, have about 3 million pairs of bases that determine their genetic identity. Interpersonal differences between individual humans however, are determined by only one tenth of one present of our collective DNA. These three million base pairs are ultimately responsible for the physical and perhaps behavioural diversity that we observe in our species. (Erickson 1993) It is in the nature of inheritance that this variation has accumulated across the generations by small mutations or variations in the base sequences. These small differences are ultimately responsible for all human diversity including many overt disease process and predisposition or resistance to others. It is clearly important where these mutations take place as some have no functional effect, others may confer some form of advantage or benefit (and thereby the motive factor behind the evolutionary processes) others may cause disease or even be incompatible with life.(Griesenbach U et al 2002), It can be argued that all disease process have at least a genetic component. It can be completely due to a genetic malfunction such as the defect in the single gene for the cystic fibrosis transmembraneconductance regulator (CFTR) which results in an abnormal expression of one protein (the protein is still expressed, but due to one amino acid irregularity it folds in a different way) which results in the clinical situation of cystic fibrosis. (Piteous DJ et al 1997). Equally it may be due to a variation in the genetic code that modifies how the immune system responds to a particular pathogen (Yoshimura, K et al. 1992). As we understand how our genome influences literally every aspect of our health we will inevitably discover more ways to combat and tackle the diseases of mankind. Before we move on to discuss overtly social and ethical considerations we should logically extend the appraisal and examination of the medical issues, as they have a pronounced bearing on these other areas. With the advent of a greater understanding of the human genome and the cellular mechanisms of regulation and disease comes the prospect of gene therapy. On the one hand, the potential benefits for the sufferers of single gene mutation syndromes such as Tay Asch’s disease and Sickle Cell Anaemia are clear and undisputed, and yet the same technology has enormous social and ethical ramifications. There are thought to be about 4,000 single gene defect syndromes known to medical science at present (Termite, S et al 1998). These are the prime targets for the gene therapy researchers There are also an enormous number of more complex, but still primarily genetically determined disease process, such as Alzheimers Disease and schizophrenia, together with the commoner Diabetes Mellitus and hypertension variants which, although having a genetic component, are thought to be manifested after a period of interaction with environmental factors. It is quite possible that the techniques of gene therapy could ultimately be applied to these conditions as well.(Sikorski R et al 1998), Social and medical benefits The advent of understanding of gene function leads to other developments in the fields of both diagnostics and possibly preventative medicine. There is already considerable debate in pharmaceutical circles about the ability of researchers to utilise genetic information to make predictive assumptions about the ability of individuals to metabolise drugs. (Sailor R et al. 1998).One of the big problems with pharmacology is that, although a normal response to a particular drug can be predicted reasonably accurately, there are variations in genetic make-up which cause marked differences in threat of metabolism and excretion of some drugs. In many cases, these differences are of minor clinical importance, but in anaesthetic and cytotoxic drugs, the differences can be lethal. (Wriggle DJ 2004). As extension of this thread of argument is that it is known that some malignancies will respond well to some cytotoxic agents while others will show no response at all. The point behind these comments is that there are considerable efforts in the pharmaceutical industry to identify the particular regions of the genome which are ultimately responsible for these differences. If they can be found it follows that they may either be capable of modification (by gene therapy or other mechanism) or their effect can be measured so that the dose (or even the type) of medication can be adjusted with far more confidence in the knowledge of the likely pharmacodynamics of that individual patient.(Spindle et al 2002). It is the ultimate hope and goal of these efforts that the pharmaceutical industry will ultimately be able to speed up the process of drug development, make the drugs faster and more effective while dramatically reducing the number of adverse drug reactions observed. Social and medical difficulties Gene tests are currently in the process of being developed as a direct result of the human genome project. Some are already commercially available. the social implications here are huge. Quite apart from the medical implications of being able to predict the likelihood of possibly developing certain disease processes, there are legal and social applications as well. Courts have been presented with the results of gene tests in cases as diverse as medical malpractice, privacy violations, criminal cases and even child custody battles.(Diamond. B. 2001) The immediate difficulty in this area is, firstly that there is insufficient knowledge to be able to interpret the results of the gene tests with 100% accuracy. This, when combined with the knowledge that many of the conditions that currently can be tested for have no known or successful treatment, leads to enormous social and ethical dilemmas. While it may be considered quite reasonable to tell a person that they are carrying a defective gene for cystic fibrosis ( as a carrier state, rather than a symptomatic individual) and thereby allow them to make positive decisions with regard to whether they choose to run the risk of passing that particular gene on to future generations. Is it reasonable to tell someone in their 20s that they are likely to develop Alzheimer’s Disease in their 60s? How will that knowledge impinge upon their approach to life? (Douglas C 2002) Equally how will such knowledge affect the eventual application and acceptance of health insurance policies which are currently worked out on